Color electrophoretic layer including microcapsules with nonionic polymeric walls

ABSTRACT

A capsule comprising a capsule wall and an electrophoretic fluid encapsulated by the capsule wall. The capsule wall comprises a cross-linked nonionic, water-soluble or water-dispersible polymer. The electrophoretic fluid comprises a suspending fluid, first pigment particles, second pigment particles, and third pigment particles. In some embodiments, the electrophoretic fluid includes a fourth electrophoretic particle. The first, second, and third particles are electrically charged, suspended in the suspending fluid, and capable of moving through the suspending fluid upon application of an electric field to the capsule.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationNo. 62/952,534, filed Dec. 23, 2019. All references, patents, and patentapplications disclosed herein are incorporated by reference in theirentireties.

BACKGROUND

Traditional electrophoretic displays based on microencapsulatedpigments, e.g., found in most eReaders, use a coacervate of gelatin andacacia to form the microcapsule walls. For black and white displays thismaterial has been shown to provide excellent performance and suchcapsules are relatively easy to manufacture. More complex, three-colorand four-color electrophoretic systems have been developed in which thepigments are enclosed within microcells, rather than microcapsules. (Themethods for forming, filling, and sealing such microcells has beendescribed in numerous patents and patent applications held by E InkCorporation.) For large-area display applications, however, it might bepreferable to have the option of a microcapsule architecture, since themaximum size of an embossed microcell area may be limited by thediameter of the embossing drum in certain embodiments.

It would be useful to have devices comprising microcapsules containingthree or more pigments such that the same electrophoretic fluid(s) wouldproduce optical states similar to those obtained in microcellcompartments, or in liquid test cells (e.g., test pixels), with onlyminor adjustments to the addressing waveforms being required. This hastypically not been possible using the gelatin/acacia capsule walls.

In this regard, there is a long and rich history to encapsulation, withnumerous processes and polymers having been proposed as materials forelectrophoretic capsules. For example, U.S. Published Pat. Appl. No.2006/0245038 suggests a great number of possible substances, includinggelatin, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl acetate, and cellulosicderivatives, as materials for manufacturing the capsule walls viacoacervation processes. However, no guidance is provided as to thepossible effects of capsule wall materials on the functioning of anenclosed electrophoretic fluid.

SUMMARY

In a first aspect, there is provided a capsule for electrophoreticmedia. The capsule includes a capsule wall and an electrophoretic fluidencapsulated by the capsule wall. Specifically, the capsule includes acapsule wall including a nonionic polymer that is water-soluble (orwater-dispersible) and cross-linked, while the electrophoretic fluidcomprises a suspending solvent, first pigment particles, second pigmentparticles, and third pigment particles, wherein the first, second, andthird particles are differently colored, electrically charged, suspendedin the suspending fluid, and capable of moving through the suspendingfluid upon application of an electric field to the capsule. In someembodiments, the nonionic polymer is a polyol. n some embodiments,wherein the polyol is polyvinyl alcohol. In some embodiments, thecapsule wall comprises a cured coacervation layer formed from thenonionic polymer and a polyvinyl lactam, which is optionallypolyvinylpyrrolidone. In some embodiments, the capsule wall iscross-linked by reaction with a dialdehyde, which is optionallyglutaraldehyde. In some embodiments, the suspending solvent comprises ahydrocarbon, such as a mixture of hydrocarbons, such as ISOPAR® E,available from Sigma-Aldrich. In some embodiments, one or more of thepigment particles are reflective. In some embodiments, one or more ofthe pigment particles are absorptive. In some embodiments, theelectrophoretic fluid further comprises a fourth pigment particle. Insome embodiments, the electrophoretic fluid includes a white pigment, ayellow pigment, a magenta pigment, and a cyan pigment. In someembodiments, the electrophoretic fluid includes a white pigment, a blackpigment, a yellow pigment, and a red pigment. In some embodiments, theelectrophoretic fluid includes a black pigment, a red pigment, a yellowpigment, and a blue pigment. In some embodiments. Capsules of theinvention may be included in an electrophoretic medium further includinga binder surrounding the capsules. In some embodiments the capsules havean average diameter between 15 μm and 50 μm, and less than one third ofthe capsules (by number) are smaller than 15 μm or larger than 50 μm.Such an electrophoretic medium, may in turn, be incorporated into anelectrophoretic display including at least one electrode disposedadjacent the electrophoretic medium and arranged to apply an electricfield to the electrophoretic medium. The electrophoretic display may berectangular in shape and have a diagonal measurement of more than 30 cm,e.g., more than 50 cm. An electrophoretic display may additionallyinclude, a second electrode or electrode layer, which may include anarray of pixel electrodes controlled with thin-film-transistors. In someembodiments, one or more of the electrodes may be light transmissive.

In a second aspect, there is provided a method for producing capsules ofthe invention. The method includes providing a polymer solutioncomprising a nonionic, water-soluble or water-dispersible startingpolymer in an aqueous solvent, providing an electrophoretic fluidcomprising a suspending solvent and pigment particles, mixing thepolymer solution and the electrophoretic fluid to create a reactionmixture, heating the reaction mixture to a temperature above the lowestcritical solution temperature of the polymer solution, thereby formingan oil-in-water emulsion including the electrophoretic fluid. adding across-linking agent to the oil-in-water emulsion, thereby forming acuring mixture; and heating the curing mixture to form capsulesencapsulating an electrophoretic medium. In some embodiments, thepolymer solution comprises a polyvinyl alcohol. In some embodiments, thepolymer solution comprises a copolymer of vinyl acetate. In someembodiments, the method further comprises adding a second nonionic,water-soluble or water-dispersible starting polymer to the polymersolution. In some embodiments, the second nonionic polymer ispolyvinylpyrrolidone. In some embodiments, the cross-linking agent is aglutaraldehyde. In some embodiments, the method additionally includesadding a coacervation inducer to the polymer solution. In someembodiments, the coacervation inducer is a water-soluble (orwater-dispersible) salt. In some embodiments, the salt is a sulfate,such as sodium sulfate.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is a schematic depiction of a typical encapsulatedelectrophoretic display.

FIG. 1B is a schematic depiction of an exemplary encapsulatedelectrophoretic display including three different types of chargedpigment particles.

FIG. 2 is a schematic depiction of a thin-film transistor (TFT) array tocontrol pixel electrodes and the associated scan (gate) and data(source) drivers.

FIG. 3 is a schematic flowchart illustrating an exemplary method forencapsulating electrophoretic fluids.

FIG. 4A shows the size distribution of droplet intermediates in anexamplary process for manufacturing microcapsules according to thepresent application. FIG. 4B shows the size distribution ofmicrocapsules produced from the droplets of FIG. 4A.

FIG. 5A shows a micrograph of a dried coating made with the capsules ofFIG. 4B, dispersed in a polyurethane binder, and incorporated into atest pixel. FIG. 5B shows a scanning electron microscope (SEM)cross-section of the coating of FIG. 5A.

FIG. 6A illustrates an exemplary waveform for driving an electrophoreticdisplay including an encapsulated electrophoretic medium to achieve ared display state. FIG. 6B illustrates a waveform for driving anencapsulated electrophoretic medium to achieve a white display state.FIG. 6C illustrates a waveform for driving an encapsulatedelectrophoretic medium to achieve a black display state.

FIG. 7 shows the size distribution of non-ionic polymeric microcapsulesafter sieving with various sieve sizes and comparison to state of theart gelatin capsules.

FIG. 8A shows a micrograph of a dried coating made with non-ionicpolymer microcapsules sieved at 15 μm and incorporated into a testpixel. FIG. 8B shows a scanning electron microscope (SEM) cross-sectionof the coating of FIG. 8A.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In a first aspect, the present invention relates to novel electro-opticmedia based on electrophoretic fluids enclosed within microcapsulesbased on nonionic polymers. Such nonionic polymer capsules are incontrast to traditional polymer capsules bearing ionizable groups, suchas are present in capsules of gelatin and acacia. The capsules disclosedherein are typically formed from a coacervate of nonionic polymer(s)that engulf an internal phase comprising a mixture of a non-polarsolvent and more than two types of charged pigment particles.Surprisingly, it has been found that the microcapsules provideapproximately the same (or better) electro-optical performance whencompared to test cells or microcells incorporating the same fluids whenaddressed with the same waveforms. In other words, the process ofencapsulation does not make a drastic change to the mechanism of pigmentmotion induced by electrical addressing of the display. Such “drop in”capability means that encapsulated media of the invention can be usedwith existing infrastructure, such as backplanes and drivers.

Without being bound to any particular theory, it appears that nonionicmicrocapsule walls may be less likely to interfere with the chargebalance that must be maintained within the electrophoretic fluid,especially when complex outcomes are expected, as is the case inmulticolor displays. Accordingly, the electro-optic media can be coatedover large surfaces and laminated with electrodes and/or other layers,to create a variety of electro-optic devices, includingsunlight-readable displays and smart windows.

An electrophoretic display normally comprises a layer of electrophoreticmaterial and at least two other layers disposed on opposed sides of theelectrophoretic material, one of these two layers being an electrodelayer. In most such displays both the layers are electrode layers, andone or both of the electrode layers are patterned to define the pixelsof the display. For example, one electrode layer may be patterned intoelongate row electrodes and the other into elongate column electrodesrunning at right angles to the row electrodes, the pixels being definedby the intersections of the row and column electrodes. Alternatively,and more commonly, one electrode layer has the form of a singlecontinuous electrode and the other electrode layer is patterned into amatrix of pixel electrodes, each of which defines one pixel of thedisplay. In another type of electrophoretic display, which is intendedfor use with a stylus, print head or similar movable electrode separatefrom the display, only one of the layers adjacent the electrophoreticlayer comprises an electrode, the layer on the opposed side of theelectrophoretic layer typically being a protective layer intended toprevent the movable electrode damaging the electrophoretic layer.

A traditional microcapsule-based electrophoretic display (EPID) is shownin FIG. 1A. Display 100 normally comprises a layer of electrophoreticmaterial 130 and at least two other layers 110 and 120 disposed onopposed sides of the electrophoretic material 130, at least one of thesetwo layers being an electrode layer, e.g., as depicted by layer 110 inFIG. 1A. The front electrode 110 may represent the viewing side of thedisplay 100, in which case the front electrode 110 may be a transparentconductor, such as Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) (which in some cases may bedeposited onto a transparent substrate, such as polyethyleneterephthalate (PET)). Other flexible conductive materials such asconductive polymers or polymers with conductive additives may be usedfor the front electrode. Such EPIDs also include, as illustrated in FIG.1A, a backplane 150, comprising a plurality of driving electrodes 153and a substrate layer 157. The layer of electrophoretic material 130 mayinclude microcapsules 133, holding electrophoretic pigment whiteparticles 135, black particles 137, and a solvent, with themicrocapsules 133 dispersed in a polymeric binder 139. Typically, thepigment particles 137 and 135 are controlled (displaced) with anelectric field produced between the front electrode 110 and the pixelelectrodes 153. In many conventional EPIDs the electrical drivingwaveforms are transmitted to the pixel electrodes 153 via conductivetraces (not shown) that are coupled to thin-film transistors (TFTs) thatallow the pixel electrodes to be addressed in a row-column addressingscheme. In some embodiments, the front electrode 110 is merely groundedand the image driven by providing positive and negative potentials tothe pixel electrodes 153, which are individually addressable. In otherembodiments, a potential may also be applied to the front electrode 110to provide a greater variation in the fields that can be providedbetween the front electrode and the pixel electrodes 153. In someembodiments, a third (red particle) 132 may be included in theelectrophoretic display, as shown in FIG. 1B.

In many embodiments, the TFT array forms an active matrix for imagedriving, as shown in FIG. 2. For example, each pixel electrode (153 inFIG. 1A) is coupled to a thin-film transistor 210 patterned into anarray, and connected to elongate row electrodes 220 and elongate columnelectrodes 230, running at right angles to the row electrodes 220. Insome embodiments, the pixels comprise transistors fabricated from metaloxides. In some embodiments, the pixels comprise transistors formed fromdoped polymers. In some embodiments, one electrode layer has the form ofa single continuous electrode and the other electrode layer is patternedinto a matrix of pixel electrodes, each of which defines one pixel ofthe display. As shown in FIG. 2, the data (source) driver 250 isconnected to the column electrodes 230 and provides source voltage toall TFTs in a column that are to be addressed. The scan (gate) driver240 is connected to the row electrodes 220 to provide a bias voltagethat will open (or close) the gates of each TFT along the row. Ofcourse, the location of the data and source drivers is arbitrary andthey can be interchanged from the position shown in FIG. 2. The gatescanning rate is typically ˜60-100 Hz, however faster or slower scanningmay be appropriate in some instances.

Typically, taking the gate-source voltage positive allows the sourcevoltage to be shorted to the drain. Taking the gate negative withrespect to the source causes the drain source currents to drop and thedrain effectively floats. Because the scan driver acts in a sequentialfashion, there is typically some measurable delay in update time betweenthe top and bottom row electrodes. It is understood that the assignmentof “row” and “column” electrodes is somewhat arbitrary and that a TFTarray could be fabricated with the roles of the row and columnelectrodes interchanged. In some embodiments, the TFT array issubstantially flexible, however individual components, such asindividual pixel transistors or driver circuits may not be flexible. Theflexible traces for supply voltages to the individual pixels may beformed from flexible materials, such as conductive polymers, or polymersdoped with conductive materials such as metal particles, nanoparticles,nanowires, nanotubes, graphite, and graphene. In some embodiments, theTFTs can be fabricated from organic thin film transistors.

While traditional EPID media are described as “black/white,” they aretypically driven to a plurality of different states between black andwhite to achieve various tones or “greyscale.” Additionally, a givenpixel may be driven between first and second grayscale states (whichinclude the endpoints of white and black) by driving the pixel through atransition from an initial gray level to a final gray level (which mayor may not be different from the initial gray level). The term“waveform” will be used to denote the entire voltage against time curveused to effect the transition from one specific initial gray level to aspecific final gray level. Typically, such a waveform will comprise aplurality of waveform elements; where these elements are essentiallyrectangular (i.e., where a given element comprises application of aconstant voltage for a period of time); the elements may be called“pulses” or “drive pulses.”

The term “gray state” is used herein in its conventional meaning in theimaging art to refer to a state intermediate two extreme optical statesof a pixel, and does not necessarily imply a black-white transitionbetween these two extreme states. For example, it is known to useelectro-optic displays as variable transmission windows in which theextreme states are substantially transparent and essentially opaque, sothat an intermediate “gray state” would be partially transmissive butmay not actually be gray in color. Indeed, if the particles used arelight-scattering, a partially transmissive “gray state” may actually becolored white. The term “monochrome” may be used hereinafter to denote adrive scheme which only drives pixels to their two extreme opticalstates with no intervening gray states.

The terms “bistable” and “bistability” are used herein in theirconventional meaning in the art to refer to displays comprising displayelements having first and second display states differing in at leastone optical property, and such that after any given element has beendriven, by means of an addressing pulse of finite duration, to assumeeither its first or second display state, after the addressing pulse hasterminated, that state will persist for at least several times, forexample at least four times, the minimum duration of the addressingpulse required to change the state of the display element. It is shownin U.S. Pat. No. 7,170,670 that some particle-based electrophoreticdisplays capable of gray scale are stable not only in their extremeblack and white states but also in their intermediate gray states, andthe same is true of some other types of electro-optic displays. Thistype of display is properly called “multi-stable” rather than bistable,although for convenience the term “bistable” may be used herein to coverboth bistable and multi-stable displays.

Numerous patents and applications assigned to or in the names of theMassachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and E Ink Corporationdescribe various technologies used in encapsulated electrophoretic andother electro-optic media. Such encapsulated media comprise numeroussmall capsules, each of which itself comprises an internal phasecontaining electrophoretically-mobile particles in a fluid medium, and acapsule wall surrounding the internal phase. Some of the materials andtechniques described in the patents and applications listed below arerelevant to fabricating variable transmission devices described herein,including:

(a) Electrophoretic particles, fluids and fluid additives; see forexample U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,961,804; 6,017,584; 6,120,588; 6,120,839;6,262,706; 6,262,833; 6,300,932; 6,323,989; 6,377,387; 6,515,649;6,538,801; 6,580,545; 6,652,075; 6,693,620; 6,721,083; 6,727,881;6,822,782; 6,870,661; 7,002,728; 7,038,655; 7,170,670; 7,180,649;7,230,750; 7,230,751; 7,236,290; 7,247,379; 7,312,916; 7,375,875;7,411,720; 7,532,388; 7,679,814; 7,746,544; 7,848,006; 7,903,319;8,018,640; 8,115,729; 8,199,395; 8,270,064; and 8,305,341; and U.S.Patent Applications Publication Nos. 2005/0012980; 2008/0266245;2009/0009852; 2009/0206499; 2009/0225398; 2010/0148385; 2010/0207073;and 2011/0012825;(b) Capsules, binders and encapsulation processes; see for example seefor example U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,930,026; 6,067,185; 6,130,774; 6,172,798;6,249,271; 6,327,072; 6,392,785; 6,392,786; 6,459,418; 6,839,158;6,866,760; 6,922,276; 6,958,848; 6,987,603; 7,061,663; 7,071,913;7,079,305; 7,109,968; 7,110,164; 7,184,197; 7,202,991; 7,242,513;7,304,634; 7,339,715; 7,391,555; 7,411,719; 7,477,444; 7,561,324;7,848,007; 7,910,175; 7,952,790; 7,955,532; 8,035,886; 8,129,655;8,446,664; and 9,005,494; and U.S. Patent Applications Publication Nos.2005/0156340; 2007/0091417; 2008/0130092; 2009/0122389; and2011/0286081;(c) Films and sub-assemblies containing electro-optic materials; see forexample U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,982,178 and 7,839,564;(d) Backplanes, adhesive layers and other auxiliary layers and methodsused in displays; see for example U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,116,318 and7,535,624;(e) Color formation and color adjustment; see for example U.S. Pat. Nos.7,075,502 and 7,839,564;(f) Methods for driving displays; see for example U.S. Pat. Nos.7,012,600 and 7,453,445;(g) Applications of displays; see for example U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,312,784and 8,009,348; and(h) Non-electrophoretic displays, as described in U.S. Pat. Nos.6,241,921; 6,950,220; 7,420,549 and 8,319,759; and U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. 2012/0293858.

Electrophoretic Fluids

The internal phase of the electro-optic medium includes charged pigmentparticles which are dispersed in a suspending solvent. In exemplaryembodiments, the solvent in which the three types of pigment particlesare dispersed is clear and colorless and may be either one or acombination of two or more liquids. It preferably has a low viscosityand a dielectric constant in the range of about 2 to about 30,preferably about 2 to about 15 for high particle mobility. Examples ofsuitable dielectric solvent include hydrocarbons such as ISOPAR®(Sigma-Aldrich), decahydronaphthalene (DECALIN),5-ethylidene-2-norbornene, fatty oils, paraffin oil; silicon fluids;aromatic hydrocarbons such as toluene, xylene, phenylxylylethane,dodecylbenzene and alkylnaphthalene; halogenated solvents such asperfluorodecalin, perfluorotoluene, perfluoroxylene,dichlorobenzotrifluoride, 3,4,5-trichlorobenzotri fluoride,chloropentafluoro-benzene, dichlorononane, pentachlorobenzene; andperfluorinated solvents such as FC-43, FC-70 and FC-5060 from (3MCompany, St. Paul, Minn.), low molecular weight halogen containingpolymers such as poly(perfluoropropylene oxide) (TCI America, Portland,Oreg.), poly(chlorotrifluoro-ethylene) such as Halocarbon Oils(Halocarbon Product Corp., River Edge, N.J.), perfluoropolyalkylethersuch as Galden (Ausimont USA, Thorofare, N.J.) or Krytox Oils andGreases K-Fluid Series (DuPont, Wilmington, Del.), polydimethylsiloxanebased silicone oils such as DC-200 (Dow Corning, Midland, Mich.).

The index of refraction of the internal phase may be modified with theaddition of index matching agents such as Cargille® index matchingfluids available from Cargille-Sacher Laboratories Inc. (Cedar Grove,N.J.).

Colored Pigment Particles

Charged pigment particles may be of a variety of colors andcompositions. Additionally, the charged pigment particles may befunctionalized with surface polymers to improve state stability. Suchpigments are described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,921,451, which is incorporatedby reference in its entirety. As anticipated above, an electrophoreticfluid forming the internal phase of the microcapsules includes three ormore types of charged pigment particles dispersed in the suspendingsolvent. For ease of illustration, the three types of pigment particlesmay be referred to as white particles, black particles and coloredparticles. This configuration is exemplified in FIG. 1B, where redparticles 132 are present in addition to traditional white particles 135and black particles 137. However, it is understood that the scope of theinvention broadly encompasses pigment particles of any colors as long asthe three types of pigment particles have visually contrasting colors.For example, the electrophoretic fluid may include a particle set of areflective white particle, and cyan, yellow, and magenta absorptiveparticles. Alternatively, the electrophoretic fluid may include aparticle set of an absorptive black particle, and red, yellow, and bluereflective particles.

For example, if the charged particles are of a white color, they may beformed from an inorganic pigment such as TiO₂, ZrO₂, ZnO, Al₂O₃, Sb₂O₃,BaSO₄, PbSO₄ or the like. They may also be polymer particles with a highrefractive index (>1.5) and of a certain size (>100 nm) to exhibit awhite color, or composite particles engineered to have a desired indexof refraction. With regard to black charged particles, they may beformed from CI pigment black 26 or 28 or the like (e.g., manganeseferrite black spinel or copper chromite black spinel) or carbon black.The third type of pigment particles may be of a color such as red,green, blue, magenta, cyan, or yellow. The pigments for this type ofparticles may include, but are not limited to, C.I. pigment PR 254,PR122, PR149, PG36, PG58, PG7, PB28, PB15:3, PY138, PY150, PY155 orPY20. Those are commonly used organic pigments described in color indexhandbook “New Pigment Application Technology” (CMC Publishing Co, Ltd,1986) and “Printing Ink Technology” (CMC Publishing Co, Ltd, 1984).Specific examples include Clariant Hostaperm Red D3G 70-EDS, HostapermPink E-EDS, PV fast red D3G, Hostaperm red D3G 70, Hostaperm BlueB2G-EDS, Hostaperm Yellow H4G-EDS, Hostaperm Green GNX, BASF Irgazinered L 3630, Cinquasia Red L 4100 HD, and Irgazin Red L 3660 HD; SunChemical phthalocyanine blue, phthalocyanine green, diarylide yellow ordiarylide AAOT yellow.

The percentages of the three types of pigment particles in theelectrophoretic fluid may vary. For example, the black particles maytake up about 0.1% to 10%, preferably 0.5% to 5% by volume of theelectrophoretic fluid; the white particles may take up about 1% to 50%,preferably 5% to 15% by volume of the fluid; and the colored particlesmay take up 2% to 20%, preferably 4% to 10% by volume of the fluid.There may be other particulate matters in the fluid which are includedas additives to enhance performance of the display device, such asswitching speed, imaging bistability and reliability.

In representative embodiments, two of the three types of pigmentparticles carry opposite charge polarities and the third type of pigmentparticles is slightly charged. The term “slightly charged” is defined asthe third type bearing a fraction of the charge carried by the greatercharged of the first two types of particles. For example, if the blackparticles are positively charged and the white particles are negativelycharged, then the colored pigment particles are slightly charged. Inother words, the charge carried by the black and the white particles ismuch more intense than the charge carried by the colored particles. Inexample embodiments, the colored pigment particles carry less than 75%,less than 50%, less than 40%, or less than 30% of the charge carried bythe greater charged of the white and black particles. Typically, theamount of charge of the “slightly charged” particles is between half anda third of the greater charged particles. In addition, the third type ofparticles which carries a slight charge has a charge polarity which isthe same as the charge polarity carried by either one of the other twotypes of the stronger charged particles.

The surface of the charged particles may be modified by known techniquesbased on the charge polarity and charge level of the particles required,as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,822,782, 7,002,728, 9,366,935, and9,372,380 as well as US Publication No. 2014-0011913. The particles mayexhibit a native charge, or may be charged explicitly using a chargecontrol agent, or may acquire a charge when suspended in a solvent.Suitable charge control agents are well known in the art; they may bepolymeric or non-polymeric in nature or may be ionic or nonionic.Examples of charge control agent may include, but are not limited to,Solsperse 17000 (active polymeric dispersant), Solsperse 9000 (activepolymeric dispersant), OLOA 11000 (succinimide ashless dispersant),Unithox 750 (ethoxylates), Span 85 (sorbitan trioleate), Petronate L(sodium sulfonate), Alcolec LV30 (soy lecithin), Petrostep B100(petroleum sulfonate) or B70 (barium sulfonate), Aerosol OT,polyisobutylene derivatives or poly(ethylene co-butylene) derivatives,and the like. In addition to the suspending solvent and charged pigmentparticles, internal phases may include stabilizers, surfactants andcharge control agents. A stabilizing material may be adsorbed on thecharged pigment particles when they are dispersed in the solvent. Thisstabilizing material keeps the particles separated from one another sothat the variable transmission medium is substantially non-transmissivewhen the particles are in their dispersed state.

As is known in the art, dispersing charged particles (typically a carbonblack, as described above) in a solvent of low dielectric constant maybe assisted by the use of a surfactant. Such a surfactant typicallycomprises a polar “head group” and a non-polar “tail group” that iscompatible with or soluble in the solvent. In the present invention, itis preferred that the non-polar tail group be a saturated or unsaturatedhydrocarbon moiety, or another group that is soluble in hydrocarbonsolvents, such as for example a poly(dialkylsiloxane). The polar groupmay be any polar organic functionality, including ionic materials suchas ammonium, sulfonate or phosphonate salts, or acidic or basic groups.Particularly preferred head groups are carboxylic acid or carboxylategroups. Stabilizers suitable for use with the invention includepolyisobutylene and polystyrene. In some embodiments, dispersants, suchas polyisobutylene succinimide and/or sorbitan trioleate, and/or2-hexyldecanoic acid are added.

The three types of pigment particles may have varying sizes. In oneembodiment, one of the three types of pigment particles is larger thanthe other two types. It is noted that among the three types of pigmentparticles, the one type of particles which is slightly chargedpreferably has the larger size. For example, both the black and thewhite particles are relatively small and their sizes (tested throughdynamic light scattering) may range from about 50 nm to about 800 nm andmore preferably from about 200 nm to about 700 nm, and in this exampleembodiment, the colored particles which are slightly charged, preferablyare about 2 to about 50 times and more preferably about 2 to about 10times larger than the black particles and the white particles.

The term “threshold voltage”, in the context of the present invention,is defined as the maximum bias voltage that may be applied to a group ofpigment particles, without causing the pigment particles to appear atthe viewing side of the display device. The term “viewing side” refersto a side of a display device where images are seen by the viewers. Inone aspect of the present application, at least one of the three typesof pigment particles may demonstrate a threshold voltage under trianglevoltage driving testing. The threshold voltage is either an inherentcharacteristic of the charged pigment particles or an additive-inducedproperty. In the former case, the threshold is generated, relying oncertain attraction force between particles or between particles andcertain substrate surfaces. A threshold may also be generated viainteraction of two types of oppositely charged particles. In the lattercase referred to above, to achieve a threshold voltage, a thresholdagent which induces or enhances the threshold characteristics of anelectrophoretic fluid may be added. The threshold agent may be anymaterial which is soluble or dispersible in the solvent of theelectrophoretic fluid and carries or induces a charge opposite to thatof the charged pigment particles. The threshold agent may be sensitiveor insensitive to the change of applied voltage. The term “thresholdagent” may broadly include dyes or pigments, electrolytes orpolyelectrolytes, polymers, oligomers, surfactants, charge controllingagents and the like. Additional information relating to the thresholdagent may be found in U.S. Pat. No. 8,115,729.

Capsule Materials

In one aspect of the present invention, the nonionic capsule walls aremade from one or more starting homopolymers or copolymers that arewater-soluble or water-dispersible and nonionic in pH-neutral aqueoussolutions. In one embodiment, the starting polymer bears essentially noelectrical charge in aqueous solutions having a pH in the range of about2 to 12. In other, non-exclusive embodiments, the starting polymer bearsessentially no electrical charge in aqueous solutions having a pH in therange of about 3 to 11, 4 to 10, 5 to 9, or 6 to 8. Optionally, oralternatively, the starting polymer bears essentially no electricalcharges at the operating conditions of electrophoretic media in whichthe capsules are to be incorporated. In preferred embodiments, at leastone of the nonionic wall polymers features three or more functionalgroups capable of forming covalent bonds with cross-linking agents, tostrengthen the capsule walls. Typical functional groups includealcoholic hydroxyl (—OH) moieties bonded to saturated carbons that areeither part of the polymeric chain or connected thereto via a bridgingmoiety.

It is to be understood that the starting polymer may in some instancesinclude a minor number of electrically charged functional groups,provided that the number of charges does not substantially degrade theperformance of the capsules. For example, the starting polymer may be apolyol containing carboxylic or amino moieties that are ionized at thepH of the electrophoretic medium, but the number of ionizable functionalgroup is too small to adversely affect the properties of the nonioniccapsules in the manner seen, for example, for gelatin/acacia capsules.In some instances, the starting polymer may include functional groupswhich, although bearing a charge at certain pH ranges, give rise toneutral moieties once incorporated in the capsule walls, emphasis beingplaced on the neutrality of this feature within the final product.Typical functional groups of this type include carboxylates that areincorporated into ester moieties and amino groups that become part ofamide or carbamate moieties within the final product capsule walls.

In this specification, unless stated otherwise, the term “polymer”includes molecules composed of at least 50 repeated subunits, forinstance polyvinyl lactams such as polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP),hydrophilic polyethers such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyethyleneoxide-polypropylene oxide (PEO-PPO), polyethylene oxide-polypropyleneoxide-polyethylene oxide (PEO-PPO-PEO), vinylpyrrolidone-vinyl acetatecopolymers, polysaccharides and water-soluble polysiloxanes.

Typical polyhydroxyl polymers, also known as polyols, include thosehaving a 1,2- and/or 1,3-diol structure, such as polyvinyl alcohols(PVOH) having the formula (CH₂CHOH)_(n), i.e., having n alcohol groupswhere n can be in the hundreds or even thousands, depending on themolecular weight of the PVOH. In instances where the PVOH is prepared byhydrolysis of the corresponding homopolymeric polyvinyl acetate, thePVOH may include less than 50% of polyvinyl acetate units, in particularless than 20% of polyvinyl acetate units. In certain embodiments, thepolyvinyl alcohols can also contain small proportions, for example of upto 20%, or alternatively up to 10% or up to 5%, of copolymer units ofethylene, propylene, acrylamide, methacrylamide, dimethacrylamide,hydroxyethyl methacrylate, methyl methacrylate, methyl acrylate, ethylacrylate, vinylpyrrolidone, hydroxyethyl acrylate, allyl alcohol,styrene or similar comonomers typically used. It is also possible to usecopolymers of hydrolysed or partially hydrolysed vinyl acetate, whichare obtainable, for example, as hydrolysed ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA),or vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate, N-vinylpyrrolidone-vinyl acetate andmaleic anhydride-vinyl acetate. Polysaccharides provide another class ofpreferred polyols, for example ethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, guar gum, dextrin, starch and other related materials such asare well known in the art.

Preferably, the mean molecular weight of the starting polymer(s) is atleast about 10,000 Daltons. The upper limit to their mean molecularweight may be up to 25,000 Daltons, 50,000 Daltons, or 75,000 Daltons,although upper limits of 100,000 Daltons or higher are alsocontemplated.

Cross-linking agents capable of reacting and forming covalent bonds withthe hydroxyl groups of a polyol starting polymer include moleculesbearing two or more reactive carbonyl groups, such as saturateddialdehydes of 2 to 6 carbons. Reaction between the alcohol groups ofthe polyol and the carbonyl moieties of the dialdehyde formscross-linkages reinforcing the structure of the microcapsule. Otherpossible crosslinkers include organic titanates or zirconates and boricacid. It is also possible to stabilize the polymer by steps of heatingand cooling that may induce physical crosslinking, for example, by meansof entanglement or hydrogen bonding. Configurations where the startingpolymer features reactive groups other than hydroxyl are alsocontemplated, provided that the cross-linking agent include moietiescapable of reacting with such groups to form covalent linkages.

Encapsulating the Electrophoretic Fluid

In a further aspect, there is provided a method for encapsulating anelectrophoretic fluid by depositing one or more nonionic, water-solubleor water-dispersible starting polymers onto emulsified droplets of theelectrophoretic fluid using a process of coacervation, also called phaseseparation. Coacervation involves the separation of a liquid phase ofcoating material from a polymeric solution and wrapping of that phase asa coacervated layer around suspended core droplets. Coacervation may bebrought about when the surface energies of the core droplets and coatingmaterial are adjusted varying some parameter of the system such astemperature, pH, or composition, for example. The coacervated layer isthen cured by means of heat, cross-linking, and/or solvent removaltechniques, yielding product microcapsules where the cured coacervatedlayer has been turned into solidified capsule walls.

FIG. 3 illustrates a representative embodiment of the method. An aqueoussolution of one or more water-dispersible starting polymers is prepared(30), then mixed with the electrophoretic fluid (32), and the resultingmixture is heated to a temperature above the lowest critical solutiontemperature (LCST) (34). The polymer coacervates, yielding emulsifieddroplets. This process may be controlled by the addition ofcoacervation-inducing agents such as salts to the polymer solution. Theefficacy of various salts at controlling the LCST is described by theempirical Hofmeister series, as is well known in the art. Across-linking agent is then added (36), and the resulting mixture isleft to react until the coacervated phase is cured, to form the capsulewalls.

In one embodiment, the curing takes place in the absence of heating, andthe curing mixture is left to react at the temperature at which it wasformed or lower. In another embodiment, the curing mixture is heated toa higher temperature (38), either directly or by increments in astepwise fashion, then curing is allowed to proceed to completion at thehigher temperature whereupon heating is discontinued and the mixture iscooled down (39) either spontaneously or by active heat removal.

It has been found that better results are obtained when the curing iscarried out in the presence of heating. Without being bound to anyparticular theory, one possible explanation is that, if heating isabsent, the coacervated polymer on the outer layer of the capsuleprecursor is prone to re-dissolving into the aqueous medium at rateshigher than the crosslinking reaction(s). The capsules produced are thenseparated by size by sieving or other size exclusion sorting method.Capsules beyond about 120 μm tend to be difficult to work with becausethey tend to break during processing from shear force. Additionally,capsules larger than 100 μm are visible to the naked eye, so theirpresence may be perceived as ripples in the variable transmission film.

After size sorting, the capsules are mixed with a binder to create aslurry for coating, e.g., using slot coating, knife coating, spincoating, etc. Alternatively, the capsules may be suspended and sprayedas described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,835,925, incorporated herein byreference in its entirety. In certain embodiments of the presentapplication, the binder includes a polymer, for example water-solublepolymer such as polyvinyl alcohol that may be cationically modified, ora latex, for example comprising a polyurethane material. As anticipatedabove, the capsules of the present application perform surprisingly wellwhen assessed with waveforms having the same structure as those used todrive the same electrophoretic fluids in test cells or microcells.

The following are representative examples illustrating aspects of thepresent invention.

EXAMPLES Example 1—Preparing Polyvinylalcohol Microcapsules

Solutions of polyvinylpyrrolidone (112.0 g of a 20% solution, 1.3 MDaaverage molecular weight) and polyvinyl alcohol (74.7 g of a 10%solution, Mowiol 23-88, available from Kuraray, Japan) were mixed andstirred for an hour at 4° C., then a solution of sodium sulfate wasadded (88.36 g of 16.7% aqueous solution), to give a cloud pointtemperature of 25° C. The solution was stirred at 4° C. until theprecipitate dissolved, whereupon a three-pigment electrophoretic fluidcontaining white, black, and red particles (120 g, of a similar fluid tothat described in the aforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 8,717,664,incorporated herein by reference in its entirety) was added subsurface,after which the temperature was increased to 9° C. and the solution wasstirred for 9 min at 400 rpm to form droplets.

Thirty grams of a mixture comprising 15.15 g of a 50 wt % aqueoussolution of glutaraldehyde, 1.52 g of 10% acetic acid, 0.27 g of 0.9%hydrogen chloride and 13.36 g of water was then added at the temperatureof 9° C. The resulting mixture was held at 9° C. for 50 min, after whichthe temperature was increased to 15° C. After 1 hour hold at thistemperature the mixture was heated to 60° C., held at this temperaturefor 135 min, then cooled to 25° C. Capsules were collected bycentrifugation after 30 min and stored in a refrigerator at 5° C. forone week before being purified. The force required to burst individualcapsules, normalized to capsule diameter, was about 48 N/m. FIGS. 4A and4B show the droplet and capsule size distributions of material madeaccording to the above procedure. FIG. 4A shows the droplets prior tocapsule wall formation with the invention and the gelatin control. FIG.4B shows the invention at the end of the capsule wall-forming reaction,and after size-sorting by sieving.

Microcapsule Coating

Following the preparation and isolation of the microcapsules, they wereincorporated into a coating slurry with 60 mg of cationic-modifiedpolyvinyl alcohol polymer CM-318 (Kuraray, Japan) in aqueous solution.This slurry was coated onto a poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)substrate of 4 mm thickness bearing a transparent conductive coating ofindium tin oxide (ITO), to give a coat having a specific weight of 21g/m². The resulting coating of microcapsules was then built into a pixelwith a carbon backplane.

FIG. 5A shows a micrograph of the microcapsule coating while FIG. 5Bshows a cross-section of the coating. Although, as seen in FIG. 5A,there are several voids in the microcapsule coating, it is noteworthythat the coating is essentially a monolayer. The cross-section showsthat the dried microcapsules 500 have a flattened aspect and form auniform layer of thickness approximately 15 micrometers. For ease ofvisualization two capsules within the capsule layer are bounded withwhite polygons.

The test pixels formed as described above were switched usingconventional waveforms as described in FIGS. 6A-6C. The sameelectrophoretic fluid containing black, white, and red particles wasalso incorporated into microcells and gelatin/acacia capsules, and theresulting products were formed into pixels and switched with the sameconventional waveforms used for the above microcapsules.

The performance of the test pixels was quantified according to theCIELAB (also known as CIE L*a*b*) color space and is reported below inTable 1:

TABLE 1 Comparison of CIELAB electro-optical performance of three-colorelectrophoretic medium in differing encapsulating structures.Gelatin/acacia PVOH Microcells capsules capsules L* a* b* L* a* b* L* a*b* White 69.7 0.02 −0.3 68.0 −1.2 −1.1 70.9 −1.0 −2.7 Black 13.6 1.9−3.6 15.8 13.2 3.0 15.2 4.2 −1.9 Red 30.2 40.5 18.6 38.1 29.4 3.2 50.920.4 3.5 (5 V) Red 22.3 26.1 11.4 28.4 30.9 11.5 33.4 38.0 18.4 (8 V)

It can be seen that the microcells and polyvinyl alcohol capsules canachieve good white, black and red states, and produce the same colorswhen addressed with the traditional voltage sequences of U.S. Pat. No.8,717,664. However, gelatin/acacia capsules cannot, in this case,achieve either a neutral black state or a red state with a*>31. It isreadily apparent that the behavior of the same electrophoretic fluids isvery different when they are contained in gelatin/acacia microcapsules,and the correct colors cannot be obtained. This is unexpected asgelatin/acacia microcapsules have been shown to provide excellentperformance for black and white displays, and were believed to performjust as well with more complex electrophoretic fluids.

Without wishing to be bound to any particular theory, it is known thatin gelatin/acacia the amount of microcapsule wall charge is a functionof pH. In a coating slurry the pH is typically adjusted to be alkalineso as to ensure that carboxylate groups in the capsule walls areionized. When these groups are charged (as they are at high pH) thecapsules have a reduced tendency to stick together, whereas at low pHthe inter-capsule sticking can cause the viscosity of the slurry to betoo high for efficient coating. When the electrophoretic fluid containsmore than two pigments, however, it may not be desirable to raise the pHof the coating solution, as the materials added to achieve this mayinterfere with the final performance of the electrophoretic display. Insome instances it may be possible to restore satisfactory performance byadjusting the addressing waveform and recover the desired optical statesin gelatin/acacia microcapsules, but typically it is necessary to makesubstantial chemical adjustments to the electrophoretic fluidsthemselves. It would be preferable to have a more pH-insensitive coatingslurry.

Moreover, capsules with charged walls may also stick to the substrateonto which they are coated, and therefore lose the ability to rearrangeefficiently to form a monolayer coating. Although manufacturingprocesses can be controlled so as to produce an even coating withcapsules having charged walls, typically monolayer coatings are muchmore readily produced using capsules without a wall charge.

It is also noteworthy that forming the polyvinylalcohol microcapsulesrequired much shorter time than the conventional process used to formgelatin/acacia capsules. The 120 g batch of electrophoretic fluid wereencapsulated in the polyvinyl alcohol-based capsules in roughly 4 hours,while the standard gelatin/acacia process usually takes over 13 hours.

Example 2—Enhanced Capsule Size Discrimination

Additional microcapsules with full-color (CMYW) electrophoretic fluidwere formed using a non-ionic polymer formulation similar to Example 1,above. An electrophoretic fluid was prepared by combining and mixingovernight the following ingredients: a dispersion containing whitepigment (71.41 g of a 55.71 wt % dispersion; polymer-coated TiO₂ asdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 8,582,196), a dispersion containing a magentapigment (15.21 g of a 24.99 wt % dispersion; C.I. Pigment Red 122,coated with vinylbenzyl chloride and laurylmethacrylate (LMA) asdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 9,697,778), a dispersion containing cyanpigment (14.23 g of a 25.43 wt % dispersion; C.I. Pigment Blue 15:3coated with methyl methacrylate (MMA) and dimethylsiloxane), adispersion containing a yellow pigment (13.64 g of a 35.62 wt %dispersion; C.I. Pigment Yellow 155 coated with methyl methacrylate(MMA), 2, 2, 2-trifluoroethyl methacrylate (TFEM) andmonomethacryloxypropyl terminated polydimethylsiloxane), CCA111 (3.04 gof a 75 wt % solution), poly(isobutylene) of average molecular weightgreater than 500,000 (3.67 g of a 9.94 wt % solution of PM in ISOPAR® E)and balanced with additional ISOPAR® E.

Solutions of polyvinyl pyrrolidone (74.07 g of a 15% solution, 1.3 MDamolecular weight) and polyvinyl alcohol (55.55 g of a 10% solution,Mowiol 23-88, available from Kuraray, Otemachi, Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan)and 152.38 g of water were mixed and stirred for an hour at 5° C., thena solution of sodium sulfate was added (88.36 g of 16.7% aqueoussolution). The resulting mixture has a cloud point temperature ≤10° C.The solution was stirred at 5° C. until the precipitate dissolved,whereupon 120 g of the electrophoretic fluid described above was addedsubsurface, and the solution was stirred for 66 min at 600 rpm to formdroplets.

At that point, 30 g of a mixture comprising: 15.15 g of a 50% aqueoussolution glutaraldehyde, 1.52 g of 10% acetic acid, 0.27 g of 0.9%hydrogen chloride and 13.36 g of water, was added at 5° C., and the pHadjusted to 2.6 with 0.239 g of hydrogen chloride (37%). Next thetemperature increased to 52° C. and hold at that temperature for 75 min,before cooling it down to 25° C. The formed capsules were collected andcleaned by a sieving method. The force required to burst individualcapsules, normalized to capsule diameter, was about 335.1 N/m.

The capsules produced were washed and separated by size by sieving. Inmany cases the portion passing through the sieves included burstcapsules and cross-linked blobs of polymer that did not actuallyencapsulate electrophoretic internal phase (charged pigment particlesdistributed in hydrocarbon solvent). Different sieves with variousopening sizes (25 μm, 20 μm, 15 μm) were used to collect the differentcapsule fractions, and the capsule size distributions were measured.(See FIG. 7.) For comparison, a standard gelatin acacia microcapsuleformulation was also prepared using the above CMYW electrophoretic fluidand sieved at 20 μm. The SVD mean size for the distributions shown inFIG. 7 were 35 μm for the gelatin control, 31 μm for the PVOH capsulessieved at 25 μm, 26 μm for the PVOH capsules sieved at 20 μm, and 24 μmfor the PVOH capsules sieved at 15 μm. Additionally, the total time ofencapsulation and separation is greatly reduced from the standardgelatin-acacia procedure. For example, 120 g of electrophoretic fluidcan be encapsulated in polyvinyl alcohol in about 3.5 hours, while thegelatin/acacia process typically requires over 13 hours. A comparison ofthe capsule size distribution for PvOH capsules made as above and sievedat 15 μm versus standard gelatin acacia microcapsules sieved at 20 μm isshown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Comparison of the capsule size distribution for PvOH capsulessieved at 15 μm versus standard gelatin acacia microcapsules sieved at20 μm. Both types of capsules are filled with an electrophoretic fluidincluding four different types of charged pigment particles. Number %Number % Volume % Volume % capsules capsules less capsules capsules less15-45 um than 15 um 15-45 um than 15 um Gelatin/ 34.1 65.7 84 12.2 20 μmsieve PvOH// 71.49 28.5 94.99 4.71 15 μm sieve

A further analysis of the mass balance of the various processesindicated that the PVOH encapsulation process increased the yield ofencapsulated electrophoretic media, in comparison to the standardgelatin encapsulation method. This results in less pigment being wastedbecause it was not encapsulated during the process.

Following the preparation and isolation of the microcapsules, they wereincorporated into a coating slurry with 60 mg of modified polyvinylalcohol polymer CM318 in aqueous solution. This slurry was coated onto apoly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) substrate of 4 mil thickness bearinga transparent conductive coating of indium tin oxide (ITO) to give acoat weight of 21 g/m2. The resulting coating of microcapsules was builtinto a test pixel with a carbon backplane using methods described indetail in U.S. Pat. No. 6,982,178, incorporated by reference herein inits entirety. The quality of the coatings obtained with the 15 μm sievedPvOH capsules can be seen in FIGS. 8A and 8B. Furthermore, comparingFIGS. 8A and 8B to FIGS. 5A and 5B, it is readily evident that thesieving process results in a smaller and more uniform capsuledistribution, resulting in a very thin (12 μm) and regular monolayer ofcapsules (See FIG. 8B). In the cross-sectional view, exemplary whiteovals have been drawn on the capsule layer to illustrate the approximatesize of the capsules in the capsule layer (FIG. 8B). Importantly,because the resulting capsules are smaller than standard gelatincapsules, the charged pigment particles can move back and forth to theviewing surface faster when driven with standard voltage driving,thereby improving the update experience for the viewer.

Test pixels similar to the one shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B were drivenusing conventional waveforms for a four-particle full colorelectrophoretic medium, e.g., as described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,921,451,incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The PvOH capsulesshowed a color gamut slightly larger when compart to the gelatin-acaciacontrol.

TABLE 3 Comparison of calculated color gamuts and measured dSNAP valuesfor four-particle full color electrophoretic media in PvOH and gelatinacacia microcapsules. Capsule Wall material Color Gamut Average dSNAPPvOH, 25 um sieve ~103,964 5.0 PvOH, 20 um sieve ~72,725 7.00 PvOH, 15um sieve ~68,132 7.25 Gelatin-Acacia, 20 um sieve ~84,000 5.5

The various test pixels were additionally evaluated for switching speed.The PvOH capsules showed slightly higher color gamut than thegelatin-acacia counterpart at both 18 and 42 frames when driven with aalternating primary color test pattern, which corresponds to ˜500 and210 milliseconds switching time, respectively. Higher color gamut atsame frame rate indicates faster switching speed for PvOH capsulescompared to the gelatin-acacia. Smaller PVOH fraction showed highercolor gamut at 18 frames, which means switching speed of smaller sizecapsules can be potentially faster than control.

TABLE 4 Color gamut calculations based upon measurements of colorsaturation at various frames in a color test pattern indicated that theswitching speed for the same pigments is faster in the PvOH capsules ascompared to the gelatin acacia capsules. Color Gamut Color Gamut CapsuleWall material (42 frames) (18 frames) PvOH, 25 um sieve ~32,471 ~9,155PvOH, 20 um sieve ~31,617 ~10,341 PvOH, 15 um sieve ~31,399 ~11,449Gelatin-Acacia, 20 um sieve ~27,000 ~8,000

It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that numerous changesand modifications can be made in the specific embodiments of theinvention described above without departing from the scope of theinvention. Accordingly, the whole of the foregoing description is to beinterpreted in an illustrative and not in a limitative sense.

1. A capsule comprising a capsule wall and an electrophoretic fluidencapsulated by the capsule wall, in which: the capsule wall comprises anonionic polymer that is water-soluble or water-dispersible andcross-linked; and the electrophoretic fluid comprises a suspendingsolvent, first pigment particles, second pigment particles, and thirdpigment particles, wherein the first, second, and third particles aredifferently colored, electrically charged, suspended in the suspendingfluid, and capable of moving through the suspending fluid uponapplication of an electric field to the capsule.
 2. The capsuleaccording to claim 1, wherein the nonionic polymer is a polyol.
 3. Thecapsule according to claim 2, wherein the polyol is polyvinyl alcohol.4. The capsule according to claim 1, wherein the capsule wall comprisesa cured coacervation layer formed from the nonionic polymer and apolyvinyl lactam.
 5. The capsule according to claim 4, wherein thepolyvinyl lactam is polyvinylpyrrolidone.
 6. The capsule according toclaim 1, wherein the capsule wall is cross-linked by reaction with adialdehyde.
 7. The capsule according to claim 6, wherein the dialdehydeis glutaraldehyde.
 8. The capsule according to claim 1, wherein thesuspending solvent comprises a hydrocarbon.
 9. The capsule according toclaim 1, wherein the electrophoretic fluid further comprises a fourthpigment particle.
 10. An electrophoretic medium comprising a pluralityof capsules according to claim 1 and a binder surrounding the capsules.11. An electrophoretic display comprising a layer of an electrophoreticmedium according to claim 10, at least one electrode disposed adjacentthe electrophoretic medium and arranged to apply an electric field tothe electrophoretic medium.
 12. The electrophoretic medium of claim 10,comprising capsules that have an average diameter between 15 μm and 50μm, and where less than one third of the capsules (by number) aresmaller than 15 μm or larger than 50 μm.
 13. An electrophoretic displaycomprising a layer of an electrophoretic medium according to claim 12,at least one electrode disposed adjacent the electrophoretic medium andarranged to apply an electric field to the electrophoretic medium.
 14. Amethod for producing a capsule encapsulating an electrophoretic medium,the method comprising: providing a polymer solution comprising anonionic, water-soluble or water-dispersible starting polymer in anaqueous solvent; providing an electrophoretic fluid comprising asuspending solvent and pigment particles; mixing the polymer solutionand the electrophoretic fluid to create a reaction mixture; heating thereaction mixture to a temperature above the lowest critical solutiontemperature of the polymer solution, thereby forming an oil-in-wateremulsion including the electrophoretic fluid; adding a cross-linkingagent to the oil-in-water emulsion, thereby forming a curing mixture;and heating the curing mixture to form capsules encapsulating anelectrophoretic medium.
 15. The method according to claim 14, whereinthe polymer solution comprises a polyvinyl alcohol.
 16. The methodaccording to claim 14, wherein the polymer solution comprises acopolymer of vinyl acetate.
 17. The method according to claim 14,further comprising adding a second nonionic, water-soluble orwater-dispersible starting polymer to the polymer solution.
 18. Themethod according to claim 17, wherein the second nonionic polymer ispolyvinylpyrrolidone.
 19. The method according to claim 14, wherein thecross-linking agent is a glutaraldehyde.
 20. The method according toclaim 14, further comprising adding a coacervation inducer to thepolymer solution.
 21. The method according to claim 20, wherein thecoacervation inducer is a water-soluble or water-dispersible salt.